Democratic Leadership in Education Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Democratic Leadership in Education - Assignment Example The finance department was considered by many as superfluous to the Agency, but the government was demanding more financial information, so the Agency was â€Å"forced to broaden their focus to make a bigger role for financial reporting.† Even without the Finance Branch, the Agency was able to function in a manner consistent with world-class standards both in its core business and in other areas of its business. In this case, the Agency felt that it would have done well without the finance department, but it is a subjective and therefore imbalance point of view. The imperative to form a new department enhances the function it discharges – in this case, financial reporting and management – according to the needs and strategies identified by the higher unit (i.e., the government). What the Agency considers its â€Å"world class† performance may only be in its view, which a balanced financial reporting system using accrual accounting should provide an imparti al view into. Issue Two: The existing system had to be upgraded, according to the senior financial officer, but it would result in a non-standard system. Furthermore, it was perceived as risky due to the fact that â€Å"so much money had already been spent on the existing system without providing a satisfactory system.† Establishing a new system would necessitate new substructures; for it to pertain only to the finance department would necessarily create a system not consistent with the rest of the Agency, but this should not deter the move where it is deemed necessary. As Alfred Chandler (1993) put it, a structure must support strategy, not impede or constrain it. Issue Three: The new Finance Director formed a small project team including Mark Black (MIS) and Henry Tell (senior financial officer) to determine requirements for the new financial management system. She also requested funding for the team. Consultants were not used for this assessment, but latitude and confidenc e were given to the existing staff and their technical background, with inputs drawn from key stakeholders through interviews. This appeared to be a wise move. In the development of new structures within an existing organization, it is important to build a sense of legitimacy and acceptance. Bringing in outside consultant who hardly knows the Agency would have been a mistake; although the resultant system might have been superior, if it were prejudged as unacceptable for being irrelevant, then the new unit may not get the chance to prove its system’s merits and the benefits it may provide the organization. The benefits of taking a structural perspective are that it focuses corporate activity to the specific goals it wishes to achieve, organizes and coordinates the efforts taken towards this effort, and therefore optimizes the firm’s resources. Resources should be organized to support vital functions, and organizational units seen as superfluous should be taken out (Lie vegoed, 1973). The usefulness of the structural frame, in this case, is to realign roles and responsibilities according to a new (accounting) environment, as well as to transmit facts and information.

Turning Points in History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Turning Points in History - Essay Example An in-depth analysis of the political scenario that was shaped by the assassination of President Kennedy suggests that for a considerable time, United States continued to suffer from political turmoil. The Vietnam War flared up and brought many displeasing results for America. Why were the events immediately preceding the turning point necessary and essential in preparing for the turning point? Events preceding the assassination of President John F Kennedy were essential because they threatened the interests of many ruling powers. President Kennedy was restructuring the CIA to deprive the capitalist cabal of the ability to spread terrorism, both locally and internationally. The ruling powers would not be able to handle the economy if President Kennedy lived and restructured the Federal Reserve System. Another potential reason of the assassination of President Kennedy was that he had resolved to quite the war in Vietnam which the ruling powers were using as a tool to make profits thro ugh sale of weapons. All of these events flared up the urge to get President Kennedy out of the way of mean ruling powers so that they may practice their malevolent plans and evil machinations.

Factors in American Democracy

Factors in American Democracy American Democracy The seven key functions of interest groups. The interest groups are organizations that may be formed in reaction to certain issues either as a single event or threat that may later become institutionalized. They are private organizations that endeavor to influence public officials to respond the shared aspirations of their members without holding to political power. They stimulate interest in public affairs through members representation based on a criterion of shared beliefs rather than by geography. Interest groups provide useful data to governments and are a means through which political participation is attained hence they act as a check and balance. This is a fundamental role that manifest itself in politics, education, business etc. These Interest groups may be for profit while others are for non profit. One function of interest groups is to garner representation that may be political. They seek out memberships as more members more power hence attaining a position where election outcome is influenced. Therefore securing money for its cause is central and advantageous in order for it to sustain itself and be effective at lobbying and influence government policy. They have the responsibility of spreading information to the general public because they pose information that either the public or the policymakers may lack. This helps it to gain more followers and influence policy makers to take certain favorable actions. They have an inbuilt mechanism to change policy both in both private and public spheres. Interest groups do educate both their own constituents and the public and by this members are educated on the most recent developments on the issues at hand. With their developed expertise on a particular field or policy area they are normally called to testify before congress on their position concerning legislation (Aldrich, 1995). The two-party system today: is it in decline or in resurgence? Over the last three decades pundits have claimed that the American political parties are on the decline in the US politics. Their role has been reducing in the political process and it has been inferred that they are not a useful tool any more. The political action committee (PACs) has supplemented the political parties rendering them to be outdated. The view is reinforced with the idea that candidates are independent of political parties to get elected rendering the parties to be less significant. Parties do not make significant and purposeful stand on issues but are concerned with accommodating followers form the middle of the ideological spectrum rendering them irrelevant to progression of society. The party leaders do not make important decisions on presidential candidate as a result of party primaries and committees. The role of the party in educating and influencing the electorate has been overtaken by the mass electronic media. Democratic Party reformed the delegate selection process trough the 1968 convention that led to increase usage of the primaries leading to an increased youth, women and minorities representation. These reforms in the Democratic Party have made it to be reflective to the view of academicians and intellectuals at the expense of the working masses, unionist, elected officials etc who have the numbers. A large number of citizens are distrustful to the major parties viewing them as corrupt institutions that circumvent the issues at hand, have no ideas and follow public opinions rather than generate them. Nevertheless political parties still do play a crucial role in American politics (Reichley, 2000). The parties are transforming but not declining despite the political environment being more candidates centered than before. Today parties are better funded with permanent headq uarters. They are more capable to providing assistance to states and local party organizations due to the strengthened financial base. They have defined themselves as providers of expertise to the needy but they cannot themselves acquire it. They have shown unity during roll call votes in congress and after the 1968 convection the Democratic Party replaced the unit rule with system of proportionality. The Republican Party has given the national committees more control over presidential campaigns and urged state parties to encourage broader participation of all groups. Today both parties do provide training sessions for candidates on campaign planning, marketing, fund raising, volunteers and campaign scheduling. The two major political parties have demonstrated adaptability to change with time and respond to constitutes demand despite the cultural and structural forces that perpetuate the two party system showing little signs of relenting. The three types of third parties. The US electoral system works against a proliferation of political parties but minor parties and independents have still managed to run for office. Third parties are created for various reasons; a split within the republican and democratic parties often represents factions over policy issues. These splinter parties have been at the forefront in gaining popularity and the electorate college (Aldrich, 1995). Ideologically related parties and issue advocacy parties do cover both ends of the political continuum. These political parties are formed around single issues e.g. green energy. Voters normally vote for third parties because they are trying to send a message to the two big parties often with success. Both the two major parties have embraced reforms and programs that were often rejected when presented by third parties. Third parties in the long run do fail to maintain themselves at local and state levels due to skimming of their talent by the major parties. There members are always small to have any domineering influence plus lacking the financial resources to carry out effective campaigns. The two major parties consolidate their dominance of the political system through high profile campaigns and conventions subsidized by tax payer’s money. Nevertheless they have been successful at calling for attention to an otherwise ignored, misrepresented or surprised issues. They have over the years managed to get the major political parties to adopt the most important portion of third party platforms as theirs giving the far sighted voter a means of making tangible statements with greater impact on the direction of the country. They work to enhance the prospects and credibility of lesser know ideas and lesser known candidates to gain and solidify ballot access. There activity provides whoever wins off ice with a more latitude and public support in choosing new public policy approaches or solutions to existing or future problems or concerns (Schaffner, 2012). Elements of referendums, initiatives, and recalls. Many countries that are representative’s democracies permit three forms of political action providing limited direct democracy. These are initiative, referendum and recall. An initiative is a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote on a proposed law, amendments or ordinance. It allows citizens to bypass their state legislature through placing proposed statutes or constitutional amendments on the ballot. In America twenty four states have adopted the initiative proceeds in their constitutions. Two types of initiatives exist. Direct initiatives are submitted to the legislature which may act on the proposal. This depends on the state hence the question may go to the ballot and if rejected a different proposal is submitted. For indirect process the legislature submits a competing measure that appears on the ballot together with the original proposal examples states of Nevada, Ohio and Massachusetts. In Utah and Wash ington proponents either chooses the direct or indirect method (Schaffner, 2012). A referendum is a direct method of voting where an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject an article proposal. This may lead to ratification of a new constitution, amendment, law or recall of an elected official. Legislative referendum is where the legislature refers a measure to the voters for approval. Popular referendum is a measure that appears on the ballot as a result of a voter petition. Legislative referendums are less controversial than citizen initiatives with high success rates. Popular referendum is a means that allow voters to approved or repeal an act of the legislature. Law passed that citizens do not approved for may lead to gathering of signatures to demand a popular vote. Advisory referendum is where the legislature and in some states the governor places a question on the ballot to asses voter opinion where the results are not binding. A recall is a procedure where voters remove an elected official from office through a direct vote when sufficient vot ers sign a petition. It allows citizens to remove from office a public official before the expiry of the term. Recall is apolitical device different from impeachment that is a legal device (Aldrich, 1995). Media Bias Professional who constitute Americas mainstream news media are mainly left oriented and democrats. They make it clear that they are giving their opinions and analysis of the news as they perceive it rather than being impartial and focus on research so as to represent relevant facts to the audience. A more useful way of measuring the news media political and ideological makeup is to examine what the professional in the industry believe about a wide array of social, ethical amend political issues. Bias manifests itself not in the form of outright lies but as a function of what reporters choose not to tell their audience. They omit factors so as to avoid contradicting the political narrative they wish to propagate. Some mangers in American newsrooms are so ideologically entrenched that there is a feeling and discussion that some of them have a difficult time reviewing a story that reflects negatively upon government or the administration. Politicians are a biased lot and they belong to political parties that champion policies and ideologies. Irrespective of their thought these ideologies are common since they do perceive their political conversations as politics. Journalist do also speak form a political position but the industry ethics and the objective of fairness do influence there profession that endeavors to do the right thing. This objective is met through fairness to those concerned with the news covered, completeness and accuracy. The American press is a unified voice with a distinct bias that generates a simplistic thinking that fits the needs of an ideological struggle. American media bias is as a result of journalist failure to reflect upon the meaning of the premise and assumptions that supports their practice because the mass media wanted to apply a narrative structure to ambiguous events in order to create a coherent and casual sense of events (Reichley, 2000). WORKS CITED: Aldrich, J. H. (1995). Why parties?: The origin and transformation of political parties in America. Chicago [u.a.: Univ. of Chicago Press. Reichley, A. J. (2000). The life of the parties: A history of American political parties. Lanham, Md [u.a.: Rowman Littlefield. Schaffner, B. F. (2012). Politics, parties, and elections in America. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Analysis of Kate Chopins The Story of an Hour Essay -- Kate Chopin St

Back in 1894, the American writer Kate Chopin wrote the short-story "The Story of an Hour". Chopin, born O'Flaherty, wasn't renowned as a writer during her time, but she has achieved recognition in the 20th century especially with her 1899 novel "The Awakening". Her stories about strong women have really been paid attention to in relation to this century's sexual liberation debate. This short-story revolves around what goes through a person's head when informed that a close family member has perished. However, I wouldn't say that this is the theme of the story, which I'll get back to. Louise Mallard is a young, yet married woman who suffers from heart trouble, and that's why her closest relatives feel that they have to break the news to her as gently as possible. Immediately after hearing the shocking news, Louise starts crying, and storms into her room. Since Louise spends the majority of the short-story in her room, this is the setting of the story. Noone really knows early in the story how Louise really feels about her husband dying. But the author certainly gives some evident hints. The fourth paragraph's content, which revolves around the period of time where Louise has just entered her room, is fairly surprising. Everyone would expect Louise to weep with agony and pain, but instead she sits calmly down: "There stood, facing an open window, a comfortable, roomy armchair." The interested reader will already here discover that something is terribly wrong, since a word like comfortable is used. A newly widdowed woman would probably not look upon a chair as comfortable shortly after receiving the terri... ...t she starts dreaming about it. That shows that she has an enormous respect for her husband, and doesn't dare to do anything that breaks or is in variance with his rights, restrictions and groundrules. Today we have procedures and laws regarding women's rights when it comes to feeling trapped in a marriage and urging to end it. Getting a divorce from one's husband is about as easy for women nowadays as opening a can of beer. Nevertheless, Chopin's story tells a lot about the situation women were in a century ago, and its morale has blossomed lately following the recent liberation debate. "The Story of an Hour" has probably inspired a great deal of women to oppose their husbands if they feel like their marriage isn't quite as jolly as it ought to be.

Kinetic Sculptures

A sculpture or three dimensional work of art, can not only be stationary, but kinetic.   Kinetic sculptures can and does move.   Many times mobiles are fixed to a baby’s crib to engage the child in active visuals.   The same principle is used in kinetic sculptures except they are works of art and are for every age to appreciate.   The intriguing element of a kinetic sculpture is that it changes because it moves.Alexander Calder was innovative in the area of kinetic sculpting.   IN 1960, he created a sculpture, The Star.   The Star is a light mobile which changes with the slightest movement of wind.   Even though the he uses nonfigurative shapes, they almost resemble birds in colors of black and red, with a single yellow star at the top.   These shapes were made from thin strips of sheet metal and attached by rods to hold them in place.The lightness of weight gives the sculpture an airy effect.   The lightness adds to the mobility of the art.   The rods are connected to the sheet metal shapes so that there is mobility in there as well.   The concept is for the statue to be a little different every time one looks at it.   The sculpture looks as if it glides in the air.   While Calder’s first kinetic sculptures relied on cranks and pulleys, he totally relied on wind to move his mobiles.Calder’s kinetic sculpture The Star was a unique form of abstract art.   The objective of the sculpture was shape and color.   The Star is a sculpture that is a new work of art every time the air moves around it. Works CitedCalder, A. The Star. 1960Delahunt, M. (1996-2008). Artlex. Retrieved April 12, 2008 from

Development Of Appraisal And Reward System

Reward system is an instilled component of the personality of every man; he is a tripartite being with a spirit living in a body, and a soul. He thinks, feels, decides and acts. These are the elements of human interaction either at home or in any other organization. This system has long been proven by brain biologist and psychologists to be of paramount use in the development of a responsible and effective. This is further confirmed by the nature of outputs produced by organizations that have harnessed this for industrial use [Wilson, 2003].The recognition of intuitive input to the productivity of an organization, and the subsequent reward of such has indeed advanced the course of man at all levels of human administration. Really, its importance can not be overemphasized in this age of competitive business market. There are specific and pragmatic ways of establishing this amiable system into the company’s mainstream activity; this is the main focus of this article. IMPORTANCE OF APPRAISAL AND AWARD SYSTEM This is a ‘global age’; an age where the large world is shirked into a small global village.Innovations are emerging daily. Alls spheres of human endeavor are advancing at millennial speed. In this age, there is intense search for talents and skills that can maintain such developments or excellence, and also even work on them to produce better. This has created keen competition in the labor market, and every company knows the value of its high-output workers, and would never want to loose them. It is this that has made performance and character based appraisal and reward system more important to the survival of any enterprise than ever before in the history of man.Every one wants the best. The search for the best leaves no space for inefficiency, as the best must be delivered by employees. Companies have also inculcated diversity into their mission statement to accommodate enough space for this search for the best, and retaining those who h ave also proven to be of optimum impact to the activities of the organization. The concept of diversity has thrown appraisal and reward into a bigger landscape for employees ready to give their best to their chosen area of influence at work.In this case, the impact of encouraging an effort geared in this direction is of utmost importance and can not be overlooked. Leading organization in any known industry, and even new inclusions understand the place of recognizing and awarding ingenuity by company employees targeted at improving customer patronage or better service delivery. Great managers and leaders do acknowledge that humans can deliver beyond their present status if only they are encouraged by a credible means. A child who receives encouragement at home from his parents usually performs better that one that does not enjoy such privilege.It is an inherent need of man, that his potential can be better harnessed with tangibly significant appreciation. In the presence of a credibl e and fair reward system, employees have a basic encouragement to deliver their best to the Company, in their capacity. They can afford to stretch themselves with their elastic limit to meet deadlines, increase effectiveness and productivity, deliver more efficient and customer-friendly service because there would be a reward for their labor. This leads to increased productivity for the Company.This productivity is relative to the Company product. Even religious organizations understand this as they promise more blessings for obedient servants. This system, if properly put in place, heightens sense of responsibility of the employee and creates a ‘working bond’ that may not be easy to break. With a fair plan, there is increased interest in Company acts, mission, plans and goals. This created a better working environment for them, and there is increased trust and more fruitful human relationships in the Company. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEMA system that recognizes human inpu ts and quality ideas directed at optimal productivity, improved working environment and human relations, confidence and profitability of a company, and significantly rewards such via credible and fair techniques is referred to as an appraisal and reward system; its effectiveness is enhanced as all participants, employees and managers, understand its purpose and are poised to make useful contribution towards achieving the set goals. A good plan is based on a combination of performance and character [John Bill].Its development involves steps outlined below: DEFINITION OF PURPOSE It is important to start with a well-defined purpose. Purpose of the system is clearly outlined from the outset. This is seen to be consistent with the Mission statement of the Company in writing and principle; it is communicated to employees and is also broken into smaller units called Goals. It is in bringing such purpose down into those achievable units that they show pragmatism and spur workers to work[ Ga llup]. COMPANY INTERACTIONS/COMMUNICATIONThis involves a forum through which such system is communicated to participants in clear and understandable terms. Suggestions and quality ideas are welcomed on the plan and execution of the plan. This also affords an opportunity to for skill acquisition and training geared at achieving the Purpose. Really, this is inevitable to the survival of the program Communication should not be a once-and-for-all thing; it need be continuous. In this way and at any point in the course of organization’s work, there is a location, personality or unit constantly refreshing people’s mind about the program.This keeps the spirit alive. GOALS This should be SMART: Stipulated and Stimulating, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound. With effective communication, employees understand and can work toward them. With those criteria, goals are closer to the heart and easier to handle at work. It is important to combine an insightful technique in drawing such goals; this is easier when everybody- all participants are part of the decision making. IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURE This is the most important of all.If purpose is then and goals are made with effective communication and there is no CREDIBLE AND FAIR structure to implement the plans, then the result can be easily guessed: there would be result at all. Therefore, it is important for the structure to be credible and fair in such a way that the criteria for adjudging performance is well-stipulated and combine quantitative and qualitative means. No element of subjectivity should be seen because this is the major worry of employees. If there is no open and transparent objectivity in the implementation, the program would fail.This structure is vital to the success of the program; it could be created as another committee entirely or a unit per session [ups] that would oversee the activities of workers at different levels. It would also be interested in accurately informing uni t members about the nature, category and content of reward. This would remove the excuse of inaccurate information and promote trust in the system. CATEGORISATION It is important for a categorization of the Purpose and goals into specific ‘committee’ or section where people of different work experience and exposure status can accurately fit in.This is to ensure that there is space for everyone, and a chance to be recognized as diligent. No one should be left out. Company products can also be categorized, with respectively competent employee. This is to ensure equal distribution of work based on talent, skills, and company’s expectation. REWARDS There should be a stated method of rewards and it should be both significant and tangible. Announcement is not enough reward. Such tools that can be employed include by compensation, awards or increase in base line salary.The latter is widely appraised, and is best effective when the incentive is about 25% of the baseline pay. Such should also be done with a short period of time. REVIEW It is important to review the activities of program, it impact on the organization and its vivid dividends at regular intervals. This would sustain and strength awareness of and confidence in the program. CONCLUSION All companies need a n appraisal and reward system, as ways of maximizing their workers input. This system affects all aspects of an organization.It is inevitable in this global and highly competitive age. Such can be established with defined purpose broken into goals, communicated to all participants under a credible and fair structure which is regularly reviewed for productivity. Gold companies retain best workers, and attract others by such means. It is no loss to any business at all. BIBILIOGRAPHY Wilson, Thomas. Innovative Reward systems for the changing workplace John, Bill: Reward and Appraisal. http://www. accaglobal. com/students/study_exams/qualifications/acca_choose/acca/fundamentals/ab/technica l_articles/2944835Performance Based Reward system Accessed from www. performance-appraisal. com/rewards. htm Performance Reward and Compensation. Accessed from http://www. gallupconsulting. com/content/? ci=58 Performance and Reward Accessed from Peter Scott www. peterscottconsult. co. uk/briefings/yourpartnerrewardsystem. doc Effective performance appraisal system. Accessed from www. allacademic. com/meta/p154789_index. html Effective Employee development Program http://www. maritz. com/employee_recognition_awards. html

Ready Or Not Here It Comes! Professor Ramos Blog

Ready Or Not Here It Comes! For a young child, learning how to swim can be scary and overwhelming at the same time. Having someone there to guide you can make it much easier. It took me a lot of courage and persistence to get comfortable with the water but when I finally got the hang of it, I fell in love with the water and it was hard to get me out of it. I was two years old when my mom left my two older sisters, my brother and I in Nicaragua with my father to come to California. She left to establish something for us so we could have a better life because our country was in civil war at the time. My mom started her own housekeeping business cleaning upper class homes where she made really good money in those days. She was able to save and send us money at the same time. When my mother had all the money she needed, she was able to bring my dad, my siblings and I to the United States. A year later, my parents got hired at an apartment complex in Claremont where my mother cleaned the apartments and my father painted them to get them move in ready. My siblings and I had access to a pool which was great because back at home we did not have one and I wanted to learn how to swim. Before we were allowed to get in, my parents would put each of my siblings in change to help clean a section of the apartment. I was always in charge of taking the plated off of the outlets, wash and dry them and screw them back on. My parents would take us with them over the weekends so they could teach us how to work for our money. We were just kids though and we only cooperated because we wanted to swim. When we were finally done they would allow us to spend the rest of the day at the pool where I learned how to swim. When my parents first started letting me get in the pool, they would only allow me to be on the steps with my floaties around my arms. I felt dumb and embarrassed because most of the children my age at the pool were already swimming at the eight feet with no floatation devices. I was stuck at the stairs where the babies were being carried by their mothers. I wanted to swim in the deep end like the rest of the kids. I remember walking up to my second oldest sister Pal and asking her â€Å"sis can you please teach me how to swim? I don’t want to wear my floaties anymore!† Pal was always the one I went to when I wanted to learn something and every time I asked her she would teach me with no problem. She then asked me with one eyebrow up â€Å"are you sure you’re ready to learn how to swim?† I was not sure what she meant by that with that look in her face but I answered her yes. At that very moment she took my floaties off and threw them to the side, grabbed me and threw me in the eight feet like nothing. I remember struggling in keeping my head above water and swallowing the water at the same time. I began screaming for help and all I could hear is my sister Pal laughing her butt off and my parents yelling at my sister to help me. All the response I got from my sister was her saying to me â€Å"peddle your hand and feet faster!† She obviously did not comprehend that I barely knew how to peddle. When she finally realized that I was drowning she jumped in to get me. Crying hysterically I asked my sister Pal â€Å"why did you throw me in the deep end like that I could have drowned!† She answered â€Å"if you want to learn how to swim you have learn how to keep your head above the water.† I am not sure why my sister chose that method to teach me how to swim not grasping that it was dangerous but I had no choice but to trust her if I wanted to how to swim. As weekends went by my siblings and I going to help our parents, my sister Pal continued to teach me how to swim by throwing me in the deep. My sister’s harsh way of teaching me how to swim finally paid off. I was the one throwing myself in the eight feet, swimming all the way to the bottom touching it and swimming all the way back up and holding myself up. I was swimming like a fish in the sea. From then on, I started to make friends around my age and played Marco Polo with them. We also raced each other to see who would make it to the other side of the pool first or we would throw either a coin or rock in the pool and see who would get it the fastest once it reached the bottom. It felt great finally knowing how to swim and getting the chance to interact with kids my age at the same time. The way I learned how to swim was probably not how most would learn or even the best way to learn but it sure did teach me pretty fast. Even though I look back and think to myself as an adult that I would probably would never teach a six-year in that way, but I still thanked my sister for taking the time to teach me how to swim. I love to swim even more now than I did then. I love summer because I get to go to the beach often, catch some waves and swim most of the day. If anyone knows me, they would know to invite me if they were going to a pool, beach or river. What can I say, I’m just a fish in the sea.

Prac 8 - Water chemistryII essays

Prac 8 - Water chemistryII essays Ø To determine water hardness of tap water and river water samples by means of titration with Ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid (EDTA). Ø To compare the different hardness levels of water samples from various sources. Hardness is primarily the measure of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions in the water. Other polyvalent metal ions can contribute to the hardness, but their effects are usually insignificant and the other ions are difficult to measure. Hardness is generally reported as ppm or mg/L of CaCO3. EDTA is a tetrabasic acid, and it has the ability to form chelated complexes with some multivalent metal ions (including Ca2+ and Mg2+). EDTA has 6 donor electrons, each of which can displace a water molecule from a hydrated metal ion. At the same time EDTA becomes deprotonated. The reaction is as follows: Mn+ + HmY(4-m)- MY(4-n)- + mH+ (where m depends on pH of solution) Because protons are liberated, the solution must be buffered. Tap Water Sample: River Water Sample Initial Volume Reading (ml) 0 3.92 0 0 0 Final Volume Reading (ml) 3.92 7.58 6.48 6.46 6.45 Volume Delivered (ml) 3.92 3.66 6.48 6.46 6.45 [EDTA] = 0.01M Volume sample used: 100ml Hardness = {([EDTA] Ãâ€" Volume EDTA used)/Volume of water sample} With [EDTA] in mol/L, and the volumes in ml, gives us hardness in mol/L. Hardness = {(0.01 Ãâ€" 3.92)/100) = 3.92 Ãâ€" 10-4M Converting to mg/L: (3.92 Ãâ€" 10-4mol/L Ãâ€" 100g/mol) Ãâ€" 1000mg/g Utilising this method, we get the following results for hardness (mg CaCO3/L): Tap Water Sample: River Water Sample Run1 Run2 Average Run1 Run2 Run3 Average Sample mean for river water samples = = ...

Definition and Examples of Telicity in English Grammar

Definition and Examples of Telicity in English Grammar In linguistics, telicity is the aspectual property of a verb phrase (or of the sentence as a whole) which indicates that an action or event has a clear endpoint. Also known as aspectual boundedness. A verb phrase presented as having an endpoint is said to be telic. In contrast, a verb phrase that is not presented as having an endpoint is said to be atelic. See Examples and Observations below. Also see: AspectGrammaticalizationTransitivity EtymologyFrom the Greek, end, goal Examples and Observations Telic verbs include fall, kick, and make (something). These verbs contrast with atelic verbs, where the event has no such natural end-point, as with play (in such a context as the children are playing). - David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 4th ed. Blackwell, 1997 Testing for TelicityOne reliable test to distinguish between telic and atelic verb phrases is to try using the gerund form of the verb phrase as direct object of complete or finish, which refer to the natural point of completion of an action. Only telic verb phrases can be used in this way. . . . [What did you do last night?] - I finished {repairing the roof / *repairing}. (Repair the roof is a telic VP while repair is atelic.)It was 11:30 p.m. when I completed {writing the report / *writing}. (Write the report is a telic VP while write is atelic.)He {stopped / *finished / *completed} being their leader in 1988. (Be their leader is an atelic VP.) Unlike finish and complete, the verb stop refers to an arbitrary endpoint. It can therefore be followed by an atelic verb phrase. If it is followed by a telic one, stop is by implicature interpreted as referring to a provisional endpoint preceding the natural point of completion: I stopped reading the book at five. (implicates that I had not finished reading the book when I stopped reading it) (Renaat Declerck in cooperation with Susan Reed and Bert Cappelle, The Grammar of the English Tense System: A Comprehensive Analysis. Mouton de Gruyter, 2006) Verb Meaning and Telicity Because telicity is so dependent on clausal elements besides the verb, it could be debated whether it is represented in verb meaning at all. In order to explore that debate, lets start by comparing watch and eat. Examples (35) and (36) provide a minimal pair, in that the only element that differs in the two sentences is the verb. (35) I watched a fish. [Atelic-Activity](36) I ate a fish. [Telic-Accomplishment] Since the sentence with watch is atelic and the sentence with eat is telic, it seems we must conclude that the verb is responsible for the (a)telicity of the sentence in these cases, and that watch is by its nature atelic. However, that easy conclusion is complicated by the fact that telic situations can also be described with watch: (37) I watched a film. [Telic-Accomplishment] The key to whether each of these situations is telic or not is in the second argumentthe verbs object. In the atelic watch example (35) and the telic eat example (36), the arguments look identical. Go a little deeper, however, and the arguments do not seem so similar. When one eats a fish, one eats its physical body. When one watches a fish, it is more than the physical body of the fish that is relevantone watches a fish doing something, even if all it is doing is existing. That is, when one watches, one watches not a thing, but a situation. If the situation that is watched is telic (e.g. the playing of a film), then so is the watching situation. If the watched situation is not telic (e.g. the existence of a fish), then neither is the watching situation. So, we cannot conclude that watch itself is telic or atelic, but we can conclude that the semantics of watch tell us that it has situation argument, and the the watching activity is coextensive with . . . the arguments situation. . . .Many verbs are like this- their telicity is directly influenced by the boundedness or telicity of their arguments, and so we must conclude that those verbs themselves are unspecified for telicity. - M. Lynne Murphy, Lexical Meaning. Cambridge University Press, 2010 Telicity in the strict sense clearly is an aspectual property which is not purely or even primarily lexical. - Rochelle Lieber, Morphology and Lexical Semantics. Cambridge University Press, 2004

Nursing skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Nursing skills - Essay Example I chose to discuss this skill as I noted that I was assigned a patient who refused treatment, and I wanted to know what and how I could manage a depressed patient refusing further care. For this critical analysis, I will apply Driscoll’s reflection model. It is a model which asks three main questions: What? So what? and Now, what? (Driscoll, 2007). These questions would help me assess my actions and the justification for these nursing interventions and skills. In accordance with the mandates of the Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008), the names of the clients and other involved health personnel shall not be used, instead, assumed names would be assigned to these patients in this paper. Mildred was a 36 year old woman who was assigned to me during my clinical placement in the mental health unit. She was diagnosed with bipolar disorder and often manifested aggressive behaviour during the manic phase of her disease. Bipolar disorder is a mental health issue wherein individuals go back and forth between very good or highly energized moods and depression (Goodwin and Sachs, 2004). The mood swings may in some cases be quick, but for some, it may take up to days or weeks. As discussed by (Goodwin and Sachs, 2004), bipolar patients can sometimes be severely depressed at one time and later on be highly charged, have poor temper control, be reckless, have little need for sleep, and be easily distracted. Their short temper and reckless behaviour can sometimes lead to aggressiveness and anger especially when they do not get what they want (Goodwin and Sachs, 2004). During my placement, my mentor asked me to administer to Mildred her due medications. As soon as I approached Mi ldred with the medications, she was already glaring at me, showing signs of aggression, like she wanted to hit me. She was also shouting for me to get away from her. When approached by other health providers, she also refused to calm down and turned even more

The Anthropology Days and Berlin Olympic Games Essay

The Anthropology Days and Berlin Olympic Games - Essay Example he comparison of the two events that took place show how each competition was aimed towards showing the advancement of the white race in comparison to all other races. The goal of each was to show that whites were the advanced race of people and would be excel far greater than any other. Early in the twentieth century following the United State’s purchase of the Louisiana Territory a special type of Olympic games were held. The events held at the St. Louis State Fair in 1904 were known as the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and the competitors were over three thousand indigenous people from all over the world that came in order to compete, entertain, and be research subjects for the American Anthropologist Association. WJ McGee, the head of the LPE Anthropology Department primarily wanted his exposition to be key in understanding Native peoples in the modern age and how race correlated with athletic ability.

Gender Study on Working and Stay-at-home Mothers Research Paper

Gender Study on Working and Stay-at-home Mothers - Research Paper Example In addition, it portrays the effects of gender in the society. Further, it denotes the perception of children towards the differences existing between their parents. Working mothers This refers to mothers who associate themselves with various income generating activities. They have lesser dependence on either their spouses or their parents. They involve both the married working mothers and single working mothers. They dedicate much of their time to work living only few hours to be with their families. Some ambiguous questions emerge from some individuals as to why, when, and what their intention is behind them (mothers) working (Lippa 2005). One of the main reasons behind mothers working for pay is to be independent. Another reason may be their (working mothers’) desire to live a live where they have total control of their finances. In addition, the work of mothers does not end up at work. More than half of the total number of working moms are those with families. Therefore, it is their (moms) obligation to hurry from work to home to provide for their families. Further, they have some customary duties to perform at their homes. For instance, they must get home earlier before their husbands so that they make several preparations concerning their meals. They also have to know the progress of their children. On the side of single working mothers, they find themselves having a full responsibility at home. They must strive to make ends meet, as they also have to avail the commodities the children require. Some children demand their mothers to provide for their necessities, which may be costly. Therefore, there is a need for single mothers to work harder to earn enough for their expenditure. They should ensure there is a surplus in their accounts. This means that they should make better calculations concerning their income and total expenses. Further, they need to make several adjustments on the total expenses. Through this, they will be able to manage their family requirements, as they eliminate the tertiary demands. In addition, single-working mothers have an extra task of time management. They search for ways of creating more time to deal with personal issues. Bearing in mind that they are the families’ sole breadwinner, they ensure they work towards the success of their business operations. They also make a good choice when it comes to friendship. They choose friends who are hard working and those who motivate other people not to despair in their work. The success of single mothers is a great joy to their families. They also bring to light less efforts for handling a family. This is a great encouragement to the single mothers not at work. Thereafter, they have an appraising hand from the entire society. Stay-at-home mothers A Housewife is another name referring to a stay-at-home mother. Most of their work is within the homestead. They do not get any remuneration for the tasks they undertake. Their main work is to ensure that they raise their kids and control their families. Stay-at-home mothers perform many tasks each day. They act as their children’s instructors, first aiders, doctors, and nannies. Some mothers are also the chefs of their homes and their children’s playmate. Further, they have a total control on the finances they use everyday . If they would require any pay, they may earn more than those working outside the homestead may earn. This is in respect to the different tasks they perform. They decide to be housewives because of their husbands’ potential to provide for the families. Difference between working mothers and stay-at-home mothe

Ayurvedic Medicine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ayurvedic Medicine - Essay Example One of the most common physical sequelae of pregnancy is nausea and vomiting. While exact figures vary, most research indicates that anywhere from 70 to 85 percent of pregnant women have nausea and/or vomiting during pregnancy (Flake et al., 2004; Wilkinson, 1999). Quinlan and Hill (2003) indicate that generally nausea and vomiting begin between the fourth and seventh week after a woman's last menstrual period, and resolves by the 20th gestational week for 90% of women; Wilkinson (1999) notes simply that "morning sickness usually starts early in the pregnancy with symptoms peaking at 8-9 weeks and then disappearing by about the 14th week." Meltzer (2000) wisely notes "Studies of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy are often made more challenging because of the subjective nature of the symptom of nausea versus the objective sign of vomiting." One indisputable danger from uncontrolled nausea and vomiting is development of hyperemesis gravidarum. Hyperemesis gravidarum, defined as, "persistent vomiting that is serious enough to cause fluid and electrolyte disturbance" (Jewell, 2003a) often necessitates hospitalization to rehydrate the woman and ameliorate electrolyte imbalances. Though the prevalence of hyperemesis gravidarum is estimated at only .3% (Fisher-Rasmussen, 1990) to 3% (Hollyer et al., 2002), its consequences can be tragic if untreated. Nausea and vomiting during pregnancy (NVP) impacts more than only the pregnant woman. Hollyer et al. (2002) report study findings where almost 50% of employed women reported reduced work efficiency due to pregnancy-related nausea and vomiting, 25-66% reported having to take time off from work, with almost 50% reporting that the nausea and vomiting negatively affected their relationship with their partner including having an adverse effect on the partner's [italics added] day-to-day life. Clearly, finding a treatment to lessen NVP is long overdue, but fraught with risks. Since the 1960's thalidomide tragedy, research on medications used for pregnant women has been limited. Ethical concerns preclude "experimentation" of medications or treatments for a pregnant woman, thus much research relies on that which is known to date or is discovered spuriously. Treatments for NVP span both "traditional" (Western) and "complementary" (Eastern) medicine. A lengthy discussion of these treatment alternatives is beyond the scope of this paper, though Jewell (2003b) provides a concise summary in Clinical Evidence. This paper focuses on one particular treatment for NVP, the use of Zingiber officinale (ginger). As will be noted, ginger can be found in varying forms (syrup, tea, capsules, food products) and this variation may confound the inter-study correlations. Zingiber officinale (ginger), as noted in the Alternative Medicine Review (2003), has a long history of medicinal use, primarily in India and China, dating back 2,500 years. Though the reasons for its anti-emetic effect are not well defined, it is thought, "the aromatic, spasmolytic, carminative, and absorbent properties of ginger suggest it has direct effects on the gastrointestinal tract (Alternative Medical Review, 2003). Combining the known benefits of ginger in Ayurvedic and "Eastern"

Organizational Conflict and Conflict Resolution at John Lewis Waitrose Assignment

Organizational Conflict and Conflict Resolution at John Lewis Waitrose - Assignment Example It is against this background that organizational conflict and conflict resolution as a leadership and management issue at John Lewis Waitrose has been outlined in the current paper. Generally, Waitrose is identified as the supermarket division of the larger chain of companies operated under the brand of John Lewis Partnership. With an employee base of over 85,500 in almost 230 branches, it is common that issues of inter-personal conflicts will arise in the conduct of the daily tasks of employees. Through a comprehensive secondary data collection that was conducted on the company, it was realised that like most other organisations where employee-to-employee communication is part of the key chain of processes to get pieces of tasks executed, issues and reports of conflicts are very common. Some key words that emanate from the case study are organisational conflict, conflict resolution, conflict prevention, productivity, inter-personal, and maturity Waitrose is a supermarket component of the larger John Lewis Partnership. Waitrose is thus responsible for the food retail division of John Lewis Partnership, which has been identified as Britain’s largest employee-owned retailer (John Lewis Partnership, 2013). ... Meanwhile in a situation where there exists such differences, perceived and actual oppositions set in, bringing about organizational conflicts (Canary, Coach & Serape, 2001). This situation has however not been a major cause to deter the company from a rapid annual growth, for which reason the company currently boasts of revenue of ?5400.4 million, backed by an operating income of ?173.5 million and net income of ?123.3 million (Gardener, 2013). This feat has been achieved while operating under the mission and vision to be a dedicated, energized and team spirited company that brings excellent food retail services to customers. Cases of Organizational Conflict A case of organisational conflict was found in literature through secondary research in Ting-Toomey, Oetzel & Yee-Jung (2001). It was realised that one employee, Staff X (name withdrawn for ethical purposes) had a communication confrontation with another employee, Staff Y (name withdrawn). Staff X was the employee responsible fo r giving customised service and assistance to a prestige customer of the company. One day as the prestige member comes to the premises of the store, he first approaches Staff Y and asks if Staff X was around to deliver serve as usual. Meanwhile, Staff X had noticed Staff Y that she was going on a lunch break and that Staff Y should cover her back. Because of this, Staff Y accepted to take the role of Staff X and give the prestige member the needed service he always had from Staff X. It turned out that the prestige customer became very satisfied with the services of Staff Y and personally requested from management to assign Staff Y to him from henceforth. Once Staff X was

To what extent are cuts to the public sector likely to affect employee Essay

To what extent are cuts to the public sector likely to affect employee motivation Restrict your answer to an analysis by Kehr's - Essay Example 479). Prior to Kehr’s model (2004a), conceptions of work motivation largely ignore the role of implicit motives and how these are distinguished from explicit motives (2004a, p. 479). In this work, Kehr’s model of compensatory work motivation and volition is reviewed for its possible relevance given budget cuts in government. A key concept of Kehr’s compensatory model is that implicit/explicit motive discrepancy gives rise to decreases in volitional strength (Kehr 2004b, p. 315). In discussing the future of motivation theory, Steer et al. (2004, p. 385) acknowledged that Kehr’s model synthesized several lines of research on motivation covering implicit and explicit motive as well as helped answer several intriguing as well as previously unanswered problem s concerning goal attainment. This is significant as the International Research Centre on Organizations has emphasized that motivating people is not an easy task (2007, p. 1). Kehr’s model is highly relevant given the a CATO Liberty news report by Mitchell (2010) indicated that United Kingdom Prime Minister Cameron is poised to implement savage government budget cuts in the United Kingdom. II. Kehr’s compensatory model of work motivation and volition As described by Kehr (2004a, p. ... 482). In Kehr’s example (2004a, p. 482), a manager high in affiliation implicit motive may enjoy a companionship with his unproductive subordinate but will still defer to the demands of his or her supervisor to increase productivity by dismissing the subordinate (Kehr 2004a, p. 482). The supervisor demands constitute an extrinsic factor. In Kehr’s (2004, p. 482) analogy, implicit motives â€Å"push† while explicit motives â€Å"pull† the individual. This means that implicit motives come from within the individual while explicit motives reinforce, moderate, or even suppress the â€Å"push† coming from the implicit motives. In Kehr’s analogy of a senior personnel and an unproductive subordinate, Kehr suggested that extrinsic factors and explicit motives could override intrinsic factors and intrinsic motives. Citing the work of McClelland (1995), Kehr (2004a, p. 480) identified that the three major implicit motives are power, achievement, and af filiation. Implicit motive are not consciously accessible but â€Å"they are assessed by operant, fantasy arousing, picture-story tests, such as the Thematic Apperceptation Test or TAT (Kehr 2004a, p. 480). The implicit motive for power pertains to the need to dominate, control, or influence (Kehr 2004a, p. 480). The implicit motive for achievement refers to the need to meet or exceed personal standards (Kehr 2004a, p. 480). Finally, the implicit motive for affiliation revolves on the need to establish and deepen social relationships (Kehr 2004a, p. 480). Implicit motives determine long-term behavioural trends while explicit motives or values produced by extrinsic factors result to cognitive choices or goals (Kehr 2004a, p. 482). In Kehr’s example (2004a, p. 482), people with explicit power motive may aim for positions of

Organizational Conflict and Conflict Resolution at John Lewis Waitrose Assignment

Organizational Conflict and Conflict Resolution at John Lewis Waitrose - Assignment Example It is against this background that organizational conflict and conflict resolution as a leadership and management issue at John Lewis Waitrose has been outlined in the current paper. Generally, Waitrose is identified as the supermarket division of the larger chain of companies operated under the brand of John Lewis Partnership. With an employee base of over 85,500 in almost 230 branches, it is common that issues of inter-personal conflicts will arise in the conduct of the daily tasks of employees. Through a comprehensive secondary data collection that was conducted on the company, it was realised that like most other organisations where employee-to-employee communication is part of the key chain of processes to get pieces of tasks executed, issues and reports of conflicts are very common. Some key words that emanate from the case study are organisational conflict, conflict resolution, conflict prevention, productivity, inter-personal, and maturity Waitrose is a supermarket component of the larger John Lewis Partnership. Waitrose is thus responsible for the food retail division of John Lewis Partnership, which has been identified as Britain’s largest employee-owned retailer (John Lewis Partnership, 2013). ... Meanwhile in a situation where there exists such differences, perceived and actual oppositions set in, bringing about organizational conflicts (Canary, Coach & Serape, 2001). This situation has however not been a major cause to deter the company from a rapid annual growth, for which reason the company currently boasts of revenue of ?5400.4 million, backed by an operating income of ?173.5 million and net income of ?123.3 million (Gardener, 2013). This feat has been achieved while operating under the mission and vision to be a dedicated, energized and team spirited company that brings excellent food retail services to customers. Cases of Organizational Conflict A case of organisational conflict was found in literature through secondary research in Ting-Toomey, Oetzel & Yee-Jung (2001). It was realised that one employee, Staff X (name withdrawn for ethical purposes) had a communication confrontation with another employee, Staff Y (name withdrawn). Staff X was the employee responsible fo r giving customised service and assistance to a prestige customer of the company. One day as the prestige member comes to the premises of the store, he first approaches Staff Y and asks if Staff X was around to deliver serve as usual. Meanwhile, Staff X had noticed Staff Y that she was going on a lunch break and that Staff Y should cover her back. Because of this, Staff Y accepted to take the role of Staff X and give the prestige member the needed service he always had from Staff X. It turned out that the prestige customer became very satisfied with the services of Staff Y and personally requested from management to assign Staff Y to him from henceforth. Once Staff X was

Fast food restaurant Essay Example for Free

Fast food restaurant Essay The pace of modern life is fast, and nowhere is it faster than in America. We want fast transportation, fast communication, fast computers, fast photos, fast music, fast repairs, and fast service from the businesses we patronize. It is from the last of these that we got fast food. At first, it was a matter of fast service. Fountain and Fast Food Service was the title of a trade magazine, which published statements like this from 1951: The partners have become old hands at spotting the type of conventioneer that will patronize their fast food service. Gradually service disappeared, and in 1954 we find fast food by itself in the title Fountain and Fast Food. Incidentally, the trade magazine renamed itself Fast Food by 1960. In February of that year, the magazine noted, Delicate scallops are really fast food because they come ready to cook. And in July it remarked, Fast food type restaurants do the lions share of business for breakfast and noon meals eaten out. The fast food revolution was a quick success throughout the land, and two decades later it was conquering the world. The U. S.outcry against infiltration from the south is matched in vehemence by our neighbors outcry against fast-food imperialism and the gradual Americanization of their own societies. noted the Christian Science Monitor in 1982. Thanks to fast food, families that formerly ate home cooking now eat out or bring back take-home fast food in record numbers. Its virtue is speed, not quality. Its less than ideal nutritional value may have influenced the coining of another term twenty years later, one that also puts a four-letter epithet in front of food: junk food (1973). Gale Encyclopedia of US History: Fast FoodTop. Home Library History, Politics Society US History Encyclopedia Fast food is what one eats in the vast majority of Americas restaurants. The term denotes speed in both food preparation and customer service, as well as speed in customer eating habits. The restaurant industry, however, has traditionally preferred the designation quick service. For hourly wage earners—whether factory hands or store clerks—take-out lunch wagons and sit-down lunch counters appeared at factory gates, streetcar stops, and throughout downtown districts in the late nineteenth century. For travelers, lunch counters also appeared in railroad stations nationwide. Fried food prevailed for its speed of preparation, as did sandwich fare and other fixings that could be held in the hand and rapidly eaten, quite literally, on the run. Novelty foods, such as hot dogs, hamburgers, french fries, came to dominate, first popularized at various worlds fairs and at the nations resorts. Soft drinks and ice cream desserts also became a mainstay. Thus, fast food also came to imply diets high in fat and caloric intake. By the end of the twentieth century, the typical American consumed some three hamburgers and four orders of french fries a week. Roughly a quarter of all Americans bought fast food every day. The rise of automobile ownership in the United States brought profound change to the restaurant industry, with fast food being offered in a variety of drive-in restaurant formats. Mom-and-pop enterprise was harnessed, largely through franchising, in the building of regional and national restaurant chains: Howard Johnsons, Dairy Queen, Burger King, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Pizza Hut, and Taco Tico. Place-product-packaging was brought forcefully to the fore; each restaurant in a chain variously shares the same logo, color scheme, architectural design motif, and point-of-purchase advertising, all configured in attention-getting, signlike buildings. Typically, fast food restaurants were located at the roadside, complete with driveways, parking lots, and, later, drive-through windows for those who preferred to eat elsewhere, including those who ate in their cars as dashboard diners. Critical to industry success was the development of paper and plastic containers that kept food hot and facilitated carry-out. Such packaging, because of the volume of largely nonbiodegradable waste it creates, has become a substantial environmental problem. In 2000, Mcdonalds—the largest quick-service chain—operated at some 13,755 locations in the United States and Canada. The companys distinctive golden arches have spread worldwide, well beyond North America. Abroad, fast food came to stand as an important symbol of American cultural, if not economic, prowess. And, just as it did at home, fast food became, as well, a clear icon of modernity. Historically, fast food merchandising contributed substantially to the quickening pace of American life through standardization. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, it fully embraced mass production and mass marketing techniques, reduced to the scale of a restaurant. Chains of restaurants, in turn, became fully rationalized within standardized purchasing, marketing, and management systems. Such a system depends on a pool of cheap, largely unskilled labor, the quick service restaurant industry being notorious for its low wages and, accordingly, its rapid turnover of personnel. Bibliography Jakle, John A. , and Keith A. Sculle. Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Pillsbury, Richard. No Foreign Food: The American Diet and Place. Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1998. Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. —John A. Jakle Gale Encyclopedia of Food Culture: Fast FoodTop Home Library Food Cooking Food Culture Encyclopedia What is termed fast food in the United States today most commonly consists of hot, freshly prepared, and wrapped food items, served to customers across a counter or through a drive-up window. Known as both fast food and quick-service food in the restaurant industry, these items are routinely sold and delivered in an amount of time ranging from a few seconds to several minutes; they now vary widely in food type, encompassing virtually all kinds of meats, preparation methods, and ethnic cuisines. Inexpensive hamburgers and french fried potatoes are still the products most readily identified as fast food, but the list of items sold in the format continually increases. Fried fish and shellfish, hot dogs, chicken, pizza, roast beef, and pasta are commonly sold at quick-service outlets. In addition to these staples, many quick-service restaurants sell a broad menu of Americanized Mexican, Greek, and Chinese foods. Some fast-food outlets offer specialty items, such as sushi, clams, or ribs, and others even sell complete home-cooked meals over their counters. Though menus and delivery formats vary greatly, fast foods chief common denominators include immediate customer service, packaging to go, and inexpensive pricing. The precise origins of fast food are vague, probably predating written history. Hungry people are as old as civilization itself, as are entrepreneurs eager to satisfy their hunger. Food vendors in ancient cities sold prepared items to passersby on the street. The actual foods varied greatly, depending on period and culture, but they generally comprised simple, inexpensive fare sold to people of modest means. Immigrants brought a variety of food styles to America, often preserving these for decades as a comforting connection with their ethnic past. Though many immigrant foodways were elaborate and ritualistic, most groups had one or two simple items that they consumed on a daily basis. As a rule, immigrant groups preferred their indigenous grains: corn from the Americas, rice from Asia, and wheat from Europe. Often these served as the basis for the peasant foods of their homelands. Pasta and flat breads came over with Italians; tortillas, beans, and tamales arrived with northbound Mexicans; and Germans brought dark breads, along with a variety of fatty sausages (which later mutated into the hot dog). Asian immigrants continued to eat rice as the basis of their diet. In the early twentieth century fast food remained primarily the fare of the masses. Vendors wheeled their pushcarts daily to factory gates, selling their wares to hungry workers. Often catering to the tastes of the particular factorys dominant ethnic group, they charged customers pennies for basic items such as sausages, meatballs, or stew. Though popular among male industrial workers, this pushcart version of fast food never became mainstream cuisine. The urban diner was the transitional phase between the vendors pushcart and modern fast food. Most early diners were small restaurants, with limited seating, sometimes constructed out of converted railway carriages or streetcars. They served simple foods to working-class customers on a short-order basis, usually cooking each meal individually when ordered. Menus varied, but fried foods were common. Though diners often emphasized speed in delivering food, customers routinely lingered before and after eating. The hamburger still stands out as the single most important American fast food, though the precise origin of this meat sandwich is the subject of historical disagreement. People have eaten chopped beef throughout the ages, and it was long a fixture in many world cultures. The lineage of the American hamburger seems to point directly, as its name indicates, back to the German city of Hamburg. First appearing on American restaurant menus in the mid-nineteenth century, ground beef patties bore the title hamburg steak. By the centurys close, vendors regularly sold meatballs wrapped in slices of bread at county fairs and summer festivals. Regional legends attribute the invention of this snack to several different individuals, but its true originator remains a mystery. The Rise of Modern Fast Food Our modern image of the fast-food restaurant dates back to 1916, when Walt Anderson began selling hamburger sandwiches from an outdoor stand on a Wichita street corner. Anderson simply flattened a meatball and placed it between two halves of a bun. His sandwich quickly became popular, attracting long lines of hungry buyers. By 1921, Anderson had joined local insurance broker Edgar Billy Ingram to form the White Castle System. After opening several identical restaurants in Wichita during their first year, the partners quickly spread their business to neighboring cities, then to nine major urban areas throughout the Midwest and on the East Coast. What separated the White Castle System from earlier short-order restaurants was its very streamlined menu, comprising only hamburgers, coffee, Coca-Cola, and pie; a uniform architectural style; and strict standardization of food quality, preparation methods, and employee performance. By the close of the 1920s, White Castles aggressive marketing and rapid spread had made the hamburger one of the most popular foods in America. Other entrepreneurs soon noticed White Castles success in the hamburger business. Very closely copying White Castles products, architecture, and company name, competing new chains also thrived, carrying the hamburger craze across the nation to smaller cities and towns. The White Tower chain appeared in 1925, eventually challenging White Castles dominance in several northern cities. Krystals, opened in 1929 in Chattanooga, soon became the hamburger powerhouse of the southeastern states. White Castles hamburger sandwich, along with its many imitators, became a daily staple for many working-class Americans. It proved so successful, in fact, that by 1930 the president of the American Restaurant Association identified the fast-food hamburger as the most important food item in the nation. Hamburgers became even more a mainstream food during the 1930s. The larger restaurant chains began marketing their products to middle-class buyers, and even more Americans became burger lovers. Despite the harsh economy of the Great Depression, most fast-food chains continued to thrive, and in many cases grew considerably. Most continued selling the White Castle–style hamburger, but late in the decade the Big Boy chain spread east from California, introducing its new double-decker hamburger sandwich along the way. By the end of the Depression, America was a solidly hamburger-eating culture. After prospering in the Depression, however, the fast-food industry suffered a serious setback during World War II. Shortages of necessary foodstuffs, such as meat, sugar, tomatoes, and coffee, meant limited menu offerings and often a significant loss of business. Attempting to continue providing meals to their customers, fast-food restaurants experimented with different items that were still in abundance, including soy patties, chili, and french fried potatoes. Even more damaging than commodity shortages was the very low unemployment rate, which meant that most workers bypassed the restaurant industry in favor of higher-paying work. Adjusting to this labor shortage, chains soon replaced their all-male workforce with women and teenagers, two groups who would become their most common employees. Despite attempts to find palatable alternative foods, and despite the shifts in workforce, much of the fast-food industry was a casualty of the war; by 1945, more than half of Americas restaurants had closed down, including several of the major fast-food chains. Rebuilding the fast-food industry after the war proved a slow process. No single chain emerged to claim dominance, and little innovation occurred. Individual companies struggled to restore their prewar prosperity, and new regional chains tried to gain a foothold. Suffering the effects of escalating costs and still under the threat of continued shortages due to unstable food supplies in war-torn countries, fast-food restaurants often had to double prices to remain in business. As population shifted from Americas cities to suburbia during the 1950s, the fast-food industry quickly followed. Early chains such as White Castle and White Tower, resisting moving to the suburbs, were quickly eclipsed by upstart franchised chains. Burger King and McDonalds outlets became common fixtures at suburban crossroads, selling burgers, fries, and shakes to hungry families. Burger Kings Jim McLamore and McDonalds Ray Kroc each sought to build one of his restaurants in every American town, and they opened hundreds of new Burger Kings and McDonalds each year in the 1960s. To accomplish this rapid expansion, they relied heavily on franchise investors, enforced strict product uniformity throughout their chains, and aggressively advertised in every newly opened territory. With McDonalds and Burger Kings success, Burger Chef outlets soon appeared nearby. Arbys, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Taco Bell were not far behind. By the late 1960s, fast food no longer meant just hamburger restaurants, but had diversified to include quick-service pizza, roast beef, chicken, and tacos. To give an idea of the dimensions to which the fast-food industry has grown, in 1999 Americans consumed over 26 billion pounds of beef, much of it as hamburgers. In that year McDonalds alone had more than ten thousand restaurants in the United States, from which it grossed in excess of $13 billion in revenue. Criticism of Fast Food Despite the widespread popularity of fast food in modern American culture, critics abound. Since the 1930s, articles and books have condemned the industry, exposing allegedly poor sanitary conditions, unhealthy food products, related environmental problems, and unfair working conditions. Whether it warrants the attention or not, the fast-food industry is still regularly cited for exploiting young workers, polluting, and contributing to obesity and other serious health problems among American consumers. American beef consumption, and more specifically the fast-food hamburger industry, is often blamed for the burning of the Amazon rain forests to make way for more grazing lands for beef cattle. Early foes of fast food cited the deplorable filth of many hamburger stands, in addition to claiming that the beef ground for their sandwiches was either spoiled, diseased, or simply of low quality. In fact, many critics maintained that much of the meat used in fast-food hamburgers came from horse carcasses. The high fat content of fast food was also controversial. Despite deceptive industry claims about the high quality and the health benefits of their products, in the 1920s and 1930s concerned nutritionists warned the public about the medical dangers of regular burger consumption. This distrust and criticism of fast food continue today, extending even further to include dire warnings about the industrys use of genetically modified and antibiotic-laden beef products. Most major chains have responded to recent attacks by prominently posting calorie and nutritional charts in their restaurants, advertising fresh ingredients, and offering alternatives to their fried foods. Despite a few more health-conscious items on the menu, fast-food chains now aggressively advertise the concept that bigger is better, offering large super-size or biggie portions of french fries, soft drinks, and milkshakes. Critics point to this marketing emphasis as a reason for an excessive and greatly increasing per-capita caloric intake among fast-food consumers, resulting in fast-growing rates of obesity in the United States. Increased litter is another problem that critics have blamed on the fast-food industry. Selling their products in paper wrappings and paper bags, early outlets created a source of litter that had not previously existed. Wrappers strewn about city streets, especially those close to fast-food restaurants, brought harsh criticism, and often inspired new local ordinances to address the problem. Some municipalities actually forced chains to clean up litter that was imprinted with their logos, but such sanctions were rare. Fast-food wrappers became part of the urban, and later suburban, landscape. Since bags and wrappers were crucial in the delivery of fast food, the industry as a whole continued to use disposable packaging, superficially assuaging public criticism by providing outside trash receptacles for the discarded paper. Years later, environmentalists again attacked the industry for excessive packaging litter, criticizing both the volume and the content of the refuse. By the early 1970s, the harshest criticisms focused more on the synthetic materials used in packaging, and less on the carelessly discarded paper. Critics derided the industrys use of styrofoam sandwich containers and soda cups, claiming that these products were not sufficiently biodegradable and were clogging landfills. Facing mounting opposition from a growing environmental movement, most of the major chains returned to packaging food in paper wrappings or small cardboard boxes. Labor activists have criticized fast-food chains tendency to employ inexpensive teenage workers. Usually offering the lowest possible wages, with no health or retirement benefits, these restaurants often find it difficult hiring adults for stressful, fast-paced jobs. Many critics claim that the industry preys on teenagers, who will work for less pay and are less likely to organize. Though these accusations may have merit, the industrys reliance on teenage labor also has inherent liabilities, such as a high employee turnover rate, which result in substantial recruiting and training costs. Companies have countered criticism about their use of teenage workers with the rationale that they offer young people entry-level work experience, teaching them: both skills and responsibility. Despite the relentless attacks, hundreds of millions of hungry customers eat fast food daily. The media constantly remind American consumers about its supposed evils. Most are conscious of the health risks from fatty, greasy meals; most realize that they are being served by a poorly paid young worker; and if they choose to ponder it, most are aware that the excessive packaging causes millions of tons of trash each year. But they continue to purchase and eat fast food on a regular basis. Fast food remains central to the American diet because it is inexpensive, quick, convenient, and predictable, and because it tastes good. Even more important, Americans eat fast food because it is now a cultural norm. As American culture homogenized and became distinctively American in the second half of the twentieth century, fast food, and especially the hamburger, emerged as the primary American ethnic food. Just as the Chinese eat rice and Mexicans eat tamales, Americans eat burgers. And fast food has grown even beyond being just a distinctive ethnic food. Since the 1960s, the concept has extended far beyond the food itself, with the term becoming a common descriptor for other quick-service operations, even a metaphor for many of the negative aspects of mainstream American life. Theorists and pundits sometimes use the term fast food to denigrate American habits, institutions, and values, referring to them as elements of a fast-food society. In fact, fast-food has become a frequently used adjective, implying not only ready availability but also superficiality, mass-produced standardization, lack of authenticity, or just poor quality. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, fast food gained additional economic and cultural significance, becoming a popular American export to nations around the world. Some detractors claim that it is even deliberately used by the United States, as a tool of cultural imperialism. The appearance of a McDonalds or Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant on the streets of a foreign city signals to many the demise of indigenous culture, replacing another countrys traditional practices and values with American materialism. In fact, the rapid spread of American fast food is probably not an organized conspiracy, rather more the result of aggressive corporate marketing strategies. Consumers in other countries are willing and able to buy fast-food products, so chains are quick to accommodate demand. Thought of around the world as American food, fast food continues its rapid international growth. Bibliography Boas, Max, and Steve Chain. Big Mac: The Unauthorized Story of McDonalds. New York: Dutton, 1976. Emerson, Robert, L. Fast Food: The Endless Shakeout. New York: Lebhar-Friedman, 1979. Halberstam, David. The Fifties. New York: Villard Books, 1993. Chapter 11 discusses the origins of the McDonalds empire. Hogan, David Gerard. Selling em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food. New York: New York University Press, 1997. Jakle, John A. , and Keith A. Sculle. Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Langdon, Philip. Orange Roofs, Golden Arches: The Architecture of American Chain Restaurants. New York: Knopf, 1986. McLamore, James, W. The Burger King: Jim McLamore and the Building of an Empire. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Mariani, John. America Eats Out. New York: William Morrow, 1991. Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Tennyson, Jeffrey. Hamburger Heaven: The Illustrated History of the Hamburger. New York: Hyperion, 1993. Witzel, Michael Karl. The American Drive-In: History and Folklore of the Drive-In Restaurant in the Car Culture. Osceola, Wisc. : Motorbooks International, 1994. —David Gerard Hogan AMG AllGame Guide: Fast FoodTop Home Library Entertainment Arts Games Guide Release Date: 1989 Genre: Action. Style: Maze Random House Word Menu: categories related to fast foodTop Home Library Literature Language Word Menu Categories Random House Word Menu by Stephen Glazier For a list of words related to fast food, see: Cuisines, Meals, and Restaurants fast food: cheap, mass-produced dishes served quickly at walk-in or drive-in outlets; convenience food Wikipedia on Answers. com: Fast foodTop Home Library Miscellaneous Wikipedia For other uses, see Fast food (disambiguation). A typical fast food meal in the United States includes a hamburger, french fries, and a soft drink. Pictured here are burgers from In-N-Out Burger McDonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken and Pizza Hut fast food restaurants in the United Arab Emirates Fast food is the term given to food that can be prepared and served very quickly. While any meal with low preparation time can be considered to be fast food, typically the term refers to food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and served to the customer in a packaged form for take-out/take-away. The term fast food was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam–Webster in 1951. Outlets may be stands or kiosks, which may provide no shelter or seating,[1] or fast food restaurants (also known as quick service restaurants). Franchise operations which are part of restaurant chains have standardized foodstuffs shipped to each restaurant from central locations. [2] Contents 1 History 1. 1 Pre-modern Europe 1. 2 United Kingdom 1. 3 United States 2 On the go 2. 1 Filling stations 2. 2 Street vendors and concessions 3 Cuisine 3. 1 Variants 4 Business 5 Employment 6 Globalization 7 Criticism 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History.

History and overview: Catalytic converter

History and overview: Catalytic converter A catalytic converter (colloquially, cat or catcon) is a device used to decrease the toxicity of emissions from an internal combustion engine. A catalytic converter works by using a catalyst to stimulate a chemical reaction in which toxic by-products of combustion are converted to less-toxic substances.First widely introduced on series-production automobiles in the U.S. market for the 1975 model year to comply with tightening EPA regulations on auto exhaust, catalytic converters are still most commonly used in motor vehicle exhaust systems. Catalytic converters are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, airplanes and other engine-equipped machines. History The catalytic converter was invented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil refining[1] who lived in the United States. Around 1950, when the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a special company, Oxy-Catalyst, to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines an idea ahead of its time for which he was awarded a patent (US2742437). Widespread adoption had to wait until the extremely effective anti-knock agent tetraHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_lead-HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadethylHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_lead HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadlead was eliminated from most gasoline over environmental concerns, as the agent would foul the converter by forming a coating on the catalysts surface, effectively disabling it.[2] The catalytic converter was further developed by JohnHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._Mooney J. HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._MooneyMooney and CarlHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_D._Keith D. HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_D._KeithKeith at the EngelhardHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelhard_Corporation HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelhard_CorporationCorporation,[3] creating the first production catalytic converter . Metal-core converter Ceramic-core converter The catalytic converter consists of several components: The core, or substrate. The core is often a ceramic honeycomb in modern catalytic converters, but stainlessHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steelsteel foil honeycombs are also used. The honey-comb surface increases the amount of surface area available to support the catalyst, and therefore is often called a catalystHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_support HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_supportsupport. The ceramic substrate was invented by RodneyHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Bagley HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_BagleyBagley, IrwinHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_Lachman HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_LachmanLachman and RonaldHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Lewis_(scientist)action=editredlink=1 HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Lewis_(scientist)action=editredlink=1Lewis at Cor ningHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Glass HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_GlassGlass, for which they were inducted into the NationalHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_FameInventorsHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_FameHallHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame of HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_FameFame in 2002. The washcoat. A washcoat is used to make converters more efficient, often as a mixture of silica and alumina. The washcoat, when added to the core, forms a rough, irregular surface, which has a far greater surface area than the flat core surfaces do, which then gives the converter core a larger surface area, and therefore more places for active precious metal sites. The catalyst is added to the washcoat (in suspension) before being applied to the core. The catalyst itself is most often a precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used. It is not suitable for all applications, however, because of unwanted additional reactions and/or cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used. Platinum and rhodium are used as a reduction catalyst, while platinum and palladium are used as an oxidization catalyst. Cerium, iron, manganese and nickel are also used, although each has its own limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union (due to reaction with carbon monoxide). Copper can be used everywhere except North America, where its use is illegal due to the formation of dioxin. How Catalytic Converters Work James L. Amos/National Geographic/Getty Images A large pile of platinum lined catalytic converters. See more green living pictures. There are millions of cars on the road in the United States, and each one is a source of air pollution. Especially in large cities, the amount of pollution that all the cars produce together can create big problems. To solve those problems, cities, states and the federal government create clean-air laws that restrict the amount of pollution that cars can produce. Over the years, automakers have made many refinements to car engines and fuel systems to keep up with these laws. One of these changes came about in 1975 with an interesting device called a catalytic converter. The job of the catalytic converter is to convert harmful pollutants into less harmful emissions before they ever leave the cars ­ exhaust system. Catalytic converters are amazingly simple devices, so it is incredible to see how big an impact they have. In this article, you will learn which pollutants are produced by an engine and how a catalytic converter deals with each of these pollutants to help reduce [edit] Types [edit] Two-way A two-way catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks: Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2CO2 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ xCO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion reaction) This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in USA market automobiles until 1981. Due to their inability to control nitrous oxide NOHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOxx, they were superseded by three-way converters. [edit] Three-way Since 1981, three-way catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in North America and many other countries on roadgoing vehicles. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ xO2 + N2 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2CO2 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2]O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ xCO2 + (x+1)H2O These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. This point is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to 1 part fuel, by weight, for gasoline. The ratio for LPG, natural gas and ethanol fuels is slightly different, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels. Generally, engines fitted with 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors, though early in the deployment of 3-way converters, carburetors equipped for feedback mixture control were used. While a 3-way catalyst can be used in an open-loop system, NOx reduction efficiency is low. Within a narrow fuel/air ratio band surrounding stoichiometry, conversion of all three pollutants is nearly complete. However, outside that band, conversion efficiency falls very rapidly. When there is more oxygen than required, the system is said to be running lean, and the system is in oxidizing condition. In that case, the converters two oxidizing reactions (oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons) are favoured, at the expense of the reduction of NOx. When there is excessive fuel, the engine is running rich; the reduction of NOx is favoured, at the expense of CO and HC oxidation. [edit] Oxygen storage Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream, usually when the air fuel ratio goes lean.[5] When insufficient oxygen is available from the exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). This lean-ness occurs either when oxygen derived from NOx reduction is unavailable or certain maneuvers such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of the converter to supply oxygen. [edit] Unwanted reactions Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation of odiferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Formation of each can be limited by modifications to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is difficult to eliminate these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or reduce hydrogen sulfide. For example, when control of hydrogen sulfide emissions is desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. Both substances act to block the adsorption of sulfur by the washcoat. Hydrogen sulfide is formed when the washcoat has adsorbed sulfur during a low temperature part of the operating cycle, which is then released during the high temperature part of the cycle and the sulfur combines with HC. [edit] For diesel engines For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst. This catalyst uses O2 (oxygen) in the exhaust gas stream to convert CO (carbon monoxide) to CO2 (carbon dioxide) and HC (hydrocarbons) to H2O (water) and CO2. These converters often operate at 90% efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping to reduce visible particulates (soot). But they cannot reduce NOx because chemical reactions always occur in the simplest possible way, and the existing O2 in the exhaust gas stream would react first. To reduce NOx on a compression ignition engine, the chemical composition of the exhaust must first be changed. Two main techniques are used: exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). NOx trapping (with NOx absorbers) is a third method, but as of yet (2010), is not widely used. Diesel engine exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter (soot), consisting in large part of elemental carbon. Catalytic converters cannot clean up elemental carbon, though they do remove up to 90% of the soluble organic fraction[citation needed], so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF). In the United States, all on-road heavy-duty vehicles powered by diesel and built after 1 January 2007 must be equipped with a catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter.[6] Instead of catalysis, a reagent such as ammonia pyrolyzed in situ from urea, is sometimes used to reduce the NOx into nitrogen. One trademark product to do this is AdBlue. [edit] For lean-burn engines For lean burn spark ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. [edit] Installation Many vehicles have a pre-catalyst located close to the engines exhaust manifold. This unit heats up quickly due to its proximity to the engine, and reduces cold-engine emissions by burning off hydrocarbons from the extra-rich mixture used in a cold engine. Many three-way catalytic converters utilize an air injection tube between the first (NOx reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. This tube is fed by a secondary air injection system. The injected air provides oxygen for the catalysts oxidizing reaction. These systems also sometimes include an upstream air injector to admit oxygen to the exhaust system before it reaches the catalytic converter. This precleans the extra-rich exhaust from a cold engine, and helps bring the catalytic converter quickly up to operating temperature. Some newer systems do not employ air injection. Instead, they provide a constantly varying mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich to keep the first catalyst (NOx reduction) from becoming oxygen loaded, and to keep the second catalyst (CO oxidization) sufficiently oxygen-saturated. They also utilize several oxygen sensors to monitor the exhaust, at least one before the catalytic converter for each bank of cylinders, and one after the converter. Some systems contain the reduction and oxidation functions separately rather than in a common housing. [edit] Damage [edit] Poisoning Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, encapsulating the catalyst so that it cannot contact and treat the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can only be run on unleaded gasoline. Other common catalyst poisons include manganese primarily from the gasoline additive MMT, and silicone which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak allowing coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was until recently widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as ZDDP. Beginning in 2006, a rapid phaseout of ZDDP in engine oils began.[citation needed] Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes liquefy or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible due to leads high boiling point. [edit] Meltdown Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons raw or partially-burnt fuel to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver of a misfire condition, along with other malfunctions, by means of the Check Engine light on the dashboard. [edit] Regulations This section does not citeany references or sources. Please help improve this articleby adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challengedand removed. (March 2009) Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In North America, most spark ignition engines of over 25 brake horsepower (19 kW) output built after January 1, 2004 are equipped with three-way catalytic converters. In Japan, a similar set of regulations came into effect January 1, 2007, while the European Union has not yet enacted analogous regulations. Most automobile spark ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since the mid-1970s, and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology. Regulations for diesel engines are similarly varied, with some jurisdictions focusing on NOx (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on particulate (soot) emissions. The regulatory diversity is challenging for manufacturers of the engine as it may not be economical to design an engine to meet two sets of regulations. Regulations of fuel quality vary across jurisdictions. In North America, Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong, gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and CNG and LPG are being reviewed for regulation. In most of Asia and Africa, the regulations are often lax in some places sulfur content of the fuel can reach 20,000 parts per million (2%). Any sulfur in the fuel can be oxidized to SO2 (sulfur dioxide) or even SO3 (sulfur trioxide) in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes over a catalyst, it may be further oxidized in the catalyst, i.e. (SO2 may be further oxidized to SO3). Sulfur oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. While it is possible to add substances like vanadium to the catalyst wash coat to combat sulfur oxide formation, such addition will reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst. The most effective solution is to further refine fuel at the refinery to produce ultra-low sulfur diesel. Regulations in Japan, Europe, and North America tightly restrict the amount of sulfur permitted in motor fuels. However, the expense of producing such clean fuel make it impractical for use in many developing countries. As a result, cities in these countries with high levels of vehicular traffic suffer from acid rain, which damages stone and woodwork of buildings and damages local ecosystems. [edit] Negative aspects Some early converter designs greatly restricted the flow of exhaust, which negatively affected vehicle performance, driveability, and fuel economy.[7] Because they were used with carburetors incapable of precise fuel/air mixture control, they could overheat and set fire to flammable materials under the car.[8] Removing a modern catalytic converter in new condition will only slightly increase vehicle performance without retuning,[9] but their removal or gutting continues.[7]HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter#cite_note-9[10] The exhaust section where the converter was may be replaced with a welded-in section of straight pipe, or a flanged section of test pipe legal for off-road use that can then be replaced with a similarly fitted converter-choked section for legal on-road use, or emissions testing.[9] In the US and many other jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its immediate replacement[citation need ed]; vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.[11] [edit] Warm-up period Most of the pollution put out by a car occurs during the first five minutes before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently.[12] [edit] Environmental impact Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they may have some adverse environmental impacts in use: The requirement for a rich burn engine to run at the stoichiometric point means it uses more fuel than a lean burn engine running at a mixture of 20:1 or less. This increases the amount of fossil fuel consumed and the carbon dioxide emissions of the vehicle. However, NOx control on lean burn engines is problematic. Although catalytic converters are effective at removing hydrocarbons and other harmful emissions, they do not solve the fundamental problem created by burning a fossil fuel. In addition to water, the main combustion product in exhaust gas leaving the engine through a catalytic converter or not is carbon dioxide (CO2).[13] Carbon dioxide produced from fossil fuels is one of the greenhouse gases indicated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to be a most likely cause of global warming.[14] Additionally, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has stated catalytic converters are a significant and growing cause of global warming, due to their release of nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas over 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide.[15] Catalytic converter production requires palladium or platinum; part of the world supply of these precious metals is produced near the Russian city of Norilsk, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to Time Magazines list of most polluted places.[16] [edit] Theft Due to the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model Toyota trucks and SUVs, due to their high ground clearance and easily-removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-in converters are also at risk of theft from SUVs and trucks, as they can be easily removed.[17]HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter#cite_note-17[18] Theft removal of the converter can often inadvertently damage the cars wiring or fuel line resulting in dangerous consequences. Rises in metal costs in the United States during recent years have led to a large increase in theft incidents of the converter,[19] which can then cost as much as $1000 to replace.[20] [edit] Diagnostics Various jurisdictions now legislate on-board diagnostics to monitor the function and condition of the emissions control system, including the catalytic converter. On-board diagnostic systems take several forms. [edit] Temperature sensors Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on 2-Way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750  °C (1,380  °F). More recent catalytic converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900  °C (1,650  °F).[citation needed] Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic converter core. For every 1% of CO in the exhaust gas stream the exhaust gas temperature will rise by 100 °C.[citation needed] [edit] Oxygen sensors The Oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed loop control system on a spark ignited rich burn engine, however it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O2 levels. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. If both sensors give the same output, the computer recognizes the catalytic converter is not functioning or removed, and will operate a check engine light and retard engine performance. Simple oxygen sensor simulators have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the internet, though these are not legal for on-road use.[21] Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel economical lean burn that may however damage the engine or the catalytic converter.[22] [edit] NOx sensors NOx sensors are extremely expensive and are generally only used when a compression ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic reduction (SCR) converter, or a NOx absorber catalyst in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst, when two are fitted the second one will be post catalyst. They are utilized for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor the only difference is the substance being monitored.